Who Was the Pharaoh of the Exodus?

The book of Exodus continues the historical narrative of Genesis. It begins with the dramatic exit of the Israelites from Egypt under the leadership of Moses. Many Egyptologists challenge the historicity of the exodus story. As a result, archaeologists debating the origins of the Israelites seldom consider the explanation presented in the Bible. In his 2006 research project,¹ Dr. Douglas Petrovich works from the assumption that the exodus occurred just as described in the Bible. He seeks to determine the pharaoh of the exodus based on chronological and biographical requirements. 

Unlike later Egyptian pharaohs, the pharaoh of the exodus remains unnamed in the Bible. The likely reason for this is that Moses followed the standard Egyptian practice at that time. This meant referring to enemy kings by their titles only, while purposefully leaving them unnamed. Just who was the pharaoh of the exodus?

The following is a summary of Amenhotep II and the Historicity of the Exodus-Pharaoh by Douglas Petrovich, and of the surrounding discussion and research pertaining to it. The views expressed do not necessarily reflect those of New Creation.

The Date of the Exodus

There are two prominent views for the date of the exodus. The late date view places the event in the 13^th century BC under Pharaoh Ramses II. In contrast, the early date view places it in the 15^th century BC under Amenhotep II.

1 Kings 6:1 is a key verse in establishing the Biblical date for the exodus. It states that Solomon began the construction of the Jerusalem temple in the 480^th year after the exodus. This means that 479+ completed years had passed. There is widespread agreement that Solomon’s construction of the temple began either 967 or 966 BC. These figures result in an exodus date of either 1446 or 1445 BC, which corresponds to the early-date view. 

The Jubilee cycles present another line of evidence for the early-date view. Leviticus 25:2–10 states that every 50^th year was to be a Jubilee year for the Israelites. The Jubilee cycles were to begin when the Israelites entered the promised land. Since they wandered in the wilderness for 40 years, they probably entered the promised land in 1406 or 1405 BC. The Talmud records the dates of later Jubilee cycles. Calculating backward results in a date of 1406 BC for the beginning of the first cycle. 

Those who hold the late date view interpret Solomon’s 480^th year figuratively. They justify this interpretation based on archaeological evidence from the 13^th century BC that seems to correspond with the biblical record. Additionally, Raamses, a city built by the Israelites according to Exodus 1:11, is thought to be Pi-Ramesses, which flourished from 1270–1100 BC. 

There are some problems with this latter view, however. The author of 1 Kings used a highly specific ordinal number (480^th) rather than a cardinal number (480). Because of this, it seems unlikely that he meant the number figuratively.

There are also problems with the late-date view’s choice of pharaoh, Ramses II. Moses was exiled in Midian for 40 years until the pharaoh who sought him was dead. This indicates that the pre-exodus pharaoh had a long reign. Seti I, who preceded Ramses III, only reigned for approximately 15 years. By contrast, Thutmose III, the pre-exodus pharaoh of the early-date view, reigned for nearly 54 years. More compelling, he was the only pharaoh from either period to reign for over 40 years. 

Egyptian Chronology

To confirm Amenhotep II’s candidacy for the exodus pharaoh, the date of the exodus must be synchronized with Egyptian history. The Ebers Papyrus helps with this. It records astronomical data from a specific day in the reign of Amenhotep I. Astronomers can chart star positions throughout history. Therefore, this astronomical data, along with records of the lengths of each pharaoh’s reign, provides a date that can then help determine the pharaoh reigning in 1446 BC. Based on these calculations, Amenhotep II reigned from 1455–1418 BC, spanning the biblical date of the exodus.² 

The Death of the Firstborn

Since Exodus 12:29–32 indicates that the pharaoh survived the 10^th plague, he must not have been a firstborn son. Amenhotep II was not the firstborn son of Thutmose III. He had an older brother named Amenemhat, who apparently died before he could assume the throne. Therefore, Amenhotep II fits this qualification for the exodus pharaoh. 

Additionally, the exodus pharaoh’s firstborn died in the 10^th plague. Therefore, the following pharaoh must not have been a firstborn, either. Thutmose IV succeeded Amenhotep II to the throne. According to an inscription between the paws of the Great Sphinx, the Dream Stele, Thutmose IV usurped the throne from his older brother. Also named Amenhotep, there are no records referring to this older brother, the heir apparent, as Amenhotep II’s eldest son.

Traditionally, Amenhotep II’s eldest son should have been named Thutmose. A wall painting at Thebes displays a young Thutmose, likely Amenhotep II’s eldest son. Thutmose must have died in childhood since there are no later records of him. This would have made his younger brother, Amenhotep, the heir apparent. But later, an even younger brother, Thutmose IV, usurped the throne from him. If Amenhotep II was indeed the pharaoh of the exodus, then his eldest son, Thutmose, died in the 10^th plague. 

The Red Sea Crossing

It typically has been assumed that the exodus pharaoh perished in the Red Sea along with his army. If this is true, it presents a problem for Amenhotep II as a candidate for the exodus pharaoh. He continued to rule for at least 17 years after the exodus. Exodus 14 records the Red Sea crossing, but it does not specify that pharaoh died.

Psalm 106:11 also refers to the incident. It states that not one of the Israelites’ enemies was left. This may refer only to pharaoh’s army pursuing the Israelites in the Red Sea. It never specifically mentions pharaoh. Psalm 136:15 states that God overthrew pharaoh and his army in the Red Sea. However, the verb used literally means “he shook off,” which does not explicitly imply the death of pharaoh. It is therefore possible that the pharaoh of the exodus did not perish in the Red Sea. As such, this may not exclude Amenhotep II from being the exodus pharaoh. 

Although there is no direct evidence of the length of Amenhotep II’s reign, it must have been at least 26 years. An inscribed wine juglet found commemorates year 26 of his reign. It is possible, however, that he reigned for at least 30 or 35 years. A fragmentary inscription appears to mark either his 30^th or 35^th regnal year. Furthermore, Amenhotep II celebrated a sed festival, which traditionally celebrated a pharaoh’s 30^th regnal year. Petrovich tentatively suggests that Amenhotep II reigned 37 1/3 years in total. Of these years, the first 2 1/3 consisted of a co-regency with his father. Records show that Amenhotep II began his reign at 18 years of age. Therefore, he must have died at the age of 55.

Egyptian Military Campaigns

Amenhotep II’s father, Thutmose III, was renowned for his military prowess and led 17 military campaigns into the Levant. By contrast, Amenhotep II led only two or three. Early in his career, Amenhotep II sought widespread fame and glory. It seems therefore odd that he conducted so few campaigns. This sharp decline seems to indicate a lessening of Egyptian power. Perhaps this was due to the loss of their slave base and military.

Amenhotep II’s first military campaign occurred after the death of his father, Thutmose III. The purpose of this campaign would be to establish his authority as the new pharaoh and quell rebellions that arose in the wake of his father’s death. 

Amenhotep II’s final military campaign appears to have occurred in 1446 BC, the biblical date for the exodus. The campaign occurred in November, a non-typical time of year for a military campaign. This suggests that it was planned on short notice. Additionally, this campaign was much shorter than the previous one. This signifies this campaign was not intended to expand the borders of Egypt’s area of control.

Furthermore, following this campaign, a drastic change occurred in foreign policy. It appears that Amenhotep II signed a peace treaty with Mitanni, one of Egypt’s long-time enemies. This change in foreign policy could be due to Egypt’s weakened state after the loss of its military in the Red Sea. 

Amenhotep II’s Loot List

The first census of the Israelites recorded in Numbers 1:45–46 suggests a total population of over 2,000,000 people. A loss of this magnitude must have devastated the Egyptian economy. It is not surprising that Egyptian records would not include this event. Foreign slaves were below the notice of their scribes. Additionally, the pride of the Egyptians would have prevented them from retaining a record of such a humiliating defeat at the hands of their slaves. 

Yet, the loot lists from Amenhotep II’s final campaign may hint at this loss sustained by the Egyptians. The plunder included 101,128 slaves, 1,082 chariots, and 13,500 weapons. This is significantly more than on any of his or his father’s previous campaigns. 

Among the slaves listed on the loot list of Amenhotep II’s final campaign were 3,600 Habiru people. Some scholars have equated the Habiru people with the Israelites due to its similarity to the word Hebrew. If the Habiru (also called Apiru) mentioned on the booty lists were Israelites, then the biblical record omitted their capture.

Amenhotep II’s final military campaign falls between the end of Exodus and the beginning of Numbers. This is a silent period in biblical history. It is possible a band of Israelites abandoned Moses’s leadership and attempted to make their own way either to the Promised Land or back to Egypt. These may have been the Apiru captured by Amenhotep II, if they were indeed Hebrews. 

The Daughter of Pharaoh

A possible piece of evidence in favor of Amenhotep II lies in the desecration of Hatshepsut’s image. Hatshepsut was the daughter of Thutmose I, the wife of Thutmose II. After the death of Thutmose II, Hatshepsut appointed herself as co-regent with Thutmose III. Moses would have been born during the reign of Thutmose I. In such case, the daughter of pharaoh who drew Moses out of the river may have been Hatshepsut. 

Multiple theories exist concerning Hatshepsut’s age. If she was born after the coronation of Thutmose I, she would have been only three years old when Moses was born, and therefore not old enough to adopt a child. However, no evidence has surfaced indicating that she was born this late. Her father was at least 35 years old when he became pharaoh. Therefore, it is quite plausible that she could have been a teenager or young adult by Moses’ birth. Hatshepsut’s sister, Akhbetneferu, died in infancy. Hatshepsut therefore remains the only candidate for the daughter of pharaoh during the time of Moses’s infancy. 

At some point after the death of Hatshepsut, someone systematically defaced her images in an attempt to erase all memory of her. In Egyptian thought, a spirit could only live as long as that person was remembered on earth. An assault on her memory was an assault on her spirit in the afterlife.  Most Egyptologists place the blame on Thutmose III, portraying him as jealous of her co-regency with him. Yet the defacement occurred at least 30 years after Hatshepsut’s death, a long time to wait to exact revenge. If he hated her enough to attempt to kill her spirit, there is no apparent reason that he would wait 30 years to do it. 

Amenhotep II is a second possible candidate for the defacer of Hatshepsut’s images. Some scholars have suggested that Thutmose III began the defacement campaign and Amenhotep II completed it. They do not explain, however, what grudge Amenhotep II would have held against Hatshepsut. If Amenhotep II was solely responsible for the defacement of Hatshepsut’s images, then a plausible reason exists. If Hatshepsut was the adoptive mother of Moses, who humiliated Amenhotep II, facilitated the death of his firstborn son, took his labor force, and destroyed his military, then Amenhotep II would have ample reason to despise her.  

Conclusion

The goal of Petrovich’s article was to synchronize Israelite and Egyptian history and to examine the life of Amenhotep II, the Egyptian pharaoh whose regnal years fit the time of the Israelite exodus from Egypt, to determine whether he met the qualifications for the pharaoh of the exodus. 

Amenhotep II’s life was not cut short at the time of the Red Sea event, but a careful reading of the relevant passages reveals that the pharaoh of the exodus did not necessarily die in the Red Sea. Amenhotep II’s final military campaign correlates well with the exodus account as an attempt to rebuild his slave base as well as recoup his lost chariots and weapons. He also may have captured a detached group of Israelites, listed as Habiru on his booty lists. Finally, the obliteration of Hatshepsut’s images no less than 30 years after her death makes the most logical sense if she was the daughter of pharaoh who raised Moses.

The pieces of evidence work together to demonstrate that not only is Amenhotep II the only legitimate candidate for the pharaoh of the exodus, but that the biblical chronology of the era synchronizes perfectly with Egyptian history, placing —Dr. Petrovich believes— the exodus in 1446 BC, during Amenhotep II’s reign. 

1. Petrovich, Douglas N. (2006). Amenhotep II and the Historicity of the Exodus-Pharaoh. The Master’s Seminary Journal, 17:1, 1–30. ↩︎
2. Since the writing of his 2006 article, Petrovich has recalculated these dates and now suggests that Amenhotep II reigned from 1453–1416 BC. These dates still span the biblical date for the Exodus. ↩︎