You have found the companion information for Fossils and the Flood: Exploring Lost Worlds with Science and Scripture. This web page provides extensive notes and references to support the material in the book. It is intended to help parents, teachers and interested scholars who want to explore the biblical and scientific evidence undergirding the statements made in the book. However, please note that these references are not exhaustive, and are intended only to point a way into the literature.
GENERAL
Many standard evolutionary texts were consulted while preparing this book. While we do not accept evolutionary theory or the long ages of conventional earth history, these texts provided a great deal of helpful information about the fossil organisms we described or depicted. These sources included Hamilton et al. (1974), Natural History Museum (1975a, 1975b, 1983), Moody (1979), Benton (1990, 1991, 1993, 2015), Gould (1993), Norman (1994), Clarkson (1998), Taylor and Lewis (2005), Palmer (2009), and Stringer and Andrews (2011). Other references specific to each section follow and include both evolutionary and creationist sources.
1. THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE EARTH
What does the Bible tell us? (page 3)
Chapter 3 (“The history of baramins”) in Wood and Murray (2003) provides a helpful discussion of the early history of the world according to the Bible, and especially its implications for our understanding of the history of living things.
What can we learn from scientific research? (pages 4-5)
Wise and Allison (2008) offer a brief biblical rationale for why and how Christians should do science. Brand (2006) sets out a more detailed biblical perspective on the philosophy of science, advocating an approach to the study of the natural world that incorporates insights from both science and the Bible. Other thought-provoking papers by the same author include Brand (1996, 2015a, 2015b). Wood’s (2016d) textbook, Introduction to Science, provides a useful creationist perspective on many relevant issues.
Sheppard (2009) gives an interesting report of a meeting of the Creation Biology Society (formerly the Creation Biology Study Group), a community of scientists and biblical scholars working with the common goal of understanding the history of life from a creationist perspective.
The quotation in the inset box by Wilson is from Wieland (2008) and the quotation by Austin is from Walker (2010). The McLain quotation is from personal correspondence and used with permission.
Putting the puzzle pieces together (page 5)
Some helpful resources on how the biblical and scientific evidence can be integrated into a coherent creationist model include Wise (2002), Wise and Richardson (2004), and Garner (2009a).
2. THE OLD WORLD
Creation week (pages 8-9)
Stambaugh (1991a) and Hasel (1994) set out the biblical case for creation days of ordinary length, each about 24 hours long. Fouts’ (2015) book, Right from the Start!, is also recommended.
How long ago did Creation take place? (pages 10-13)
Mortenson (2015) provides a short summary of the biblical case for a young world. The theological importance of getting the chronology right is addressed by Lloyd (2009, 2017).
Hasel (1980), Niessen (1982), Sarfati (2003), and Ham and Pierce (2006) defend a straightforward reading of the biblical genealogies, without missing generations, thus constraining the date of Adam’s creation to about 6,000 years ago.
The question of whether we should adopt the numbers in the Masoretic or the Septuagint text is hotly debated among creationists. For a flavor of some recent discussions see Cosner and Carter (2015), Sexton and Smith (2016), Smith (2017, 2018a, 2018b), and Tomkins et al. (2019).
The series of articles by Snelling (2009d, 2009e, 2010a) provides a helpful introduction to radiometric dating, its faulty assumptions and unreliable results, as well as the evidence for accelerated radioactive decay in the earth’s past. A major creationist research initiative on radiometric dating resulted in three books (Vardiman et al. 2000; Vardiman et al. 2005; DeYoung 2005) and a host of technical papers. Snelling (2010c, 2011a, 2011b) provides a creationist perspective on the carbon-14 dating method.
Young world evidences are discussed in a number of papers, including comet lifetimes (Worraker 2004; Faulkner 2019, pp.270-272), saltiness of the ocean (Austin and Humphreys 1990), sediment build-up on the seafloor (Roth 1986), and the erosion of the continents (Roth 1986).
The created world I. Continents and oceans (page 14)
Snelling (2014a) discusses the evidence that there was a pre-Flood supercontinent similar to Rodinia, and that it broke apart during the Flood.
The created world II. Living things (pages 15-17)
The biome concept is introduced by Wise (2011), and illustrated with modern grasslands. Some specific examples of pre-Flood biomes are described in Wise (2002, pp.170-176) and Wood and Murray (2003, pp.188-191).
Matthews (2014) shows how a trip to a natural history museum reveals the biomes that existed before the Flood and details of the recovery of the world after the Flood.
In Fossils and the Flood we did not focus on the consequences of Adam’s fall for living things. However, we can infer from Scripture that several things came about, directly or indirectly, as a consequence of Adam’s fall, including the introduction of physical death for people and animals, carnivory, sickness and disease, the struggle for survival, and thorns and thistles. These implications of the Fall are discussed further in Garner (2009a, pp.157-160). See also Stambaugh (1991b) and Lloyd (2009).
Wise (1992b) discusses the seasonality of pre-Flood climates evidenced by fossil tree rings.
The floating forest (pages 18-21)
Wise (2003b, 2008c) and Austin and Sanders (2018) describe the development of the floating forest model. The model in its current form was founded partly on insights from Austin (1979), concerning the formation of the No. 12 coal bed in western Kentucky, and from Scheven (1981, 1984, 1990a, 1990b, 1990c; see also Wieland 1995), concerning the anatomical evidence that fossil lycopsids were designed to grow on water. Sanders and Austin (2018) published additional paleobotany data supporting the floating forest model.
Glasgow’s famous Fossil Grove is described in Gunning (1995). Clarey and Tomkins (2016) proposed that Fossil Grove represents a pre-Flood terrestrial forest, preserved on the land surface where it was growing before the Flood. However, Wise (2018) made a convincing argument from an on-site investigation that the trees were transported before burial, consistent with the floating forest model, and not preserved where they had originally grown.
Salty, hot-water reefs (pages 22-23)
Wise (2003a) proposed that the pre-Flood continental shelf housed a spectrum of marine ecosystems from the margin landward: (a) a shallow-water, hydrothermal, stromatolite reef biome; (b) a deep-water, sandy biome with Ediacaran animals; (c) a carbonate biome populated with the organisms which generated the small shelly fossils; and (d) a non-carbonate muddy biome populated by the Paleozoic fauna.
The diorama is based on the fossil stromatolites of the Kwagunt Formation of Grand Canyon, described by Wise and Snelling (2005), which were probably part of the pre-Flood stromatolite reef biome.
Living on the marine shelf I. The Ediacarans (pages 24-25)
See Wise (2003a). Doran (2015) describes the strange, soft-bodied animals known as Ediacarans and interprets them from a creationist perspective.
The diorama is based on data from several Ediacaran localities, including the Charnwood Forest (England), the Flinders Range (Australia), and Mistaken Point (Newfoundland) (Sprigg 1947; Ford 1958; Glaessner 1958; Glaessner and Daily 1959; Glaessner and Wade 1966; LaFlamme et al. 2004; Misra 2010).
Living on the marine shelf II. Small shelly creatures (pages 26-27)
See Wise (2003a).
The diorama is based on data from Zhuravleva (1970), Matthews and Missarzhevsky (1975), Demidenko (2006), and Semikhatov (2008).
The discovery of fossil animals such as Halkieria and Microdictyon, with multiple plates on their bodies, suggests that at least some of the “small shells” actually represent armor-like plates that belonged in life to larger animals (Haas 1981; Bengtson 1992).
Living on the marine shelf III. The Atdabanian animals (pages 28-29)
See Wise (2003a).
The diorama is based mostly on animals from the Chengjiang fossil beds of southern China (Hou et al. 2004). The exceptions are Helicoplacus, whose fossils are found in roughly coeval sediments in the White-Inyo Mountains of California (Durham and Caster 1963), and the trilobite, Olenellus, which makes its first appearance at the boundary between the Atdabanian and the next Cambrian stage (Yuan et al. 2011).
Extensive inland seas: the marine Paleozoic (pages 30-31)
Evolutionary paleontologist Jack Sepkoski (1981, 1990) resolved the Phanerozoic part of the fossil record (i.e., everything from the Cambrian onwards) into three distinct “faunas”: the Cambrian, Paleozoic and Modern.
The Paleozoic fauna probably represents the inhabitants of an extensive shallow sea that covered much of the pre-Flood supercontinent. The Cincinnatian fossil beds of Ohio were chosen to represent this extensive biome in our diorama. Snelling (2011c) describes the testimony these fossil beds give to Noah’s Flood.
The diorama is based on data from Dalvé (1948), Elias (1983), Davis (1985), and Frey (1995).
The fringes of the land: coastal dunes and forests (pages 32-33)
Conventional geologists interpret many sandstones of the Permian geological system as windblown desert sands (McKee and Bigarella 1979), which would have been impossible to form during a global Flood. However, new research by creationists indicates that these sandstones were in fact deposited as large underwater dunes called sand waves (Garner 2008, 2009b; Garner and Whitmore 2011; Whitmore et al. 2014, 2015; Whitmore 2015, 2019a, 2019b; Whitmore and Garner 2018). Wise (2002, p.205) suggested that these Permian deposits may represent pre-Flood desert or coastal dune sands that were reworked and redeposited during the Flood; hence we have reconstructed the Permian as a coastal biome.
The diorama is based on data from Gregory (1926), Broom (1937), Colbert (1948), Cox (1964), Boonstra (1969), and Smith and Evans (1995). All the animals shown in the diorama are from the Karoo beds of South Africa, with the exception of Coelurosauravus, which is known from fossils in Madagascar and Europe (Evans and Haubold 1987).
Some critics of creationism have claimed it would have been impossible for the 800 billion vertebrates in the Karoo fossil beds to have been alive at one time (i.e., in the pre-Flood world). However, Woodmorappe (1986, 2000) has shown that the 800 billion figure is largely conjectural and that the pre-Flood world could, in any case, have supported such a population.
Dinosaurs I. Triassic biome (pages 34-35)
Wise (2011) proposes that three successive sets of Flood layers – the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous layers – represent three different dinosaur communities living at the same time just before the Flood, but at different locations. These communities were buried in succession, as each was overrun by the advancing floodwaters.
The dinosaurs in the Triassic diorama are based on fossils from the Ischigualasto Formation of northwestern Argentina (Ezcurra 2010; Langer et al. 2010; Martínez et al. 2011). The non-dinosaurian reptiles are documented in Benton (1997, p.233). The therapsids Probainognathus and Chiniquodon are described in Martínez et al. (2013).
Dinosaurs II. Jurassic biome (pages 36-37)
See Wise (2011).
The dinosaurs in the Jurassic diorama are based on fossils from the Morrison Formation of Colorado and surrounding states (Weishampel et al. 2004, pp.543-544; see references therein). The mammals Docodon and Priacodon are documented in Foster (2007) and the pterosaur Harpactognathus is described in Carpenter et al. (2003). The only non-Morrison taxon in the diorama is Archaeopteryx, which is known from strata of approximately equivalent age in Europe (Weishampel et al. 2004, p.211).
Snelling (2014b) describes “Ebenezer”, a world-class Allosaurus specimen residing in the Creation Museum in Kentucky, which was recovered from a catastrophically deposited debris flow within the Brushy Basin Member of the Morrison Formation. Hoesch and Austin (2004) argue that the famous “fossil wall” at Dinosaur National Monument, also part of the Brushy Basin Member, represents a transported death assemblage, not an in situ ecosystem.
The story of the Great American Bone Wars is recounted by Wallace (1999).
Dinosaurs III. Cretaceous biome (pages 38-39)
See Wise (2011).
The dinosaurs in the Cretaceous diorama are based on fossils from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana and surrounding states (Weishampel et al. 2004, p.584; see references therein). The mammals Alphadon and Mesodma are documented in Hunter and Archibald (2002). Henderson and Peterson (2006) described a cervical vertebra from a Hell Creek azhdarchid pterosaur. In our diorama, we have represented this pterosaur as Quetzalcoatlus, although the vertebra could not be assigned confidently to a genus.
We have made the (controversial to some) decision to portray Dromaeosaurus and Troodon (in the Cretaceous biome) and Ornitholestes (in the Jurassic biome) with feathers. There is a growing body of evidence that at least some members of the groups to which these dinosaurs belonged possessed feathers. Some of these fossil specimens are preserved with impressions of long, quilled feathers and some with short, downy feathers (e.g., Chen et al. 1998; Ji and Ji 1997; Ji et al. 1998, 2007, 2012; Xu et al. 1999a, 1999b, 2003, 2004, 2010, 2012, 2015; Xu and Wang 2003; Turner et al. 2007b; Hu et al. 2009; Chiappe and Göhlich 2010; Zelenitsky et al. 2012; Godefroit et al. 2013; Pu et al. 2013; Han et al. 2014; Lü and Brusatte 2015). Others do not preserve feather impressions, but there are “bumps” on the forearms (interpreted as quill nodes) where feathers would have been attached (e.g., Turner et al. 2007a, DePalma et al. 2015; Funston and Currie 2016). The discovery of feathered dinosaurs adds to our appreciation of the diversity of life before the Flood (McLain 2020).
Statistical baraminology studies by Garner et al. (2013) and McLain et al. (2018) found discontinuity between modern birds and dinosaurs, consistent with the biblical claim that birds had a separate origin from land animals (Genesis 1:20-25, 31). However, some feathered animals clustered with the dinosaurs and not with the birds, consistent with the idea that at least some Jurassic and Cretaceous feathered animals are dinosaurs and not birds.
Upchurch (2010) and Garner (2020) describe a creationist dinosaur dig in eastern Wyoming. The rocks being excavated belong to the Lance Formation, the equivalent in Wyoming of the Hell Creek Formation in Montana. The project is uncovering evidence favouring a catastrophic mass mortality event. More details of the dig can be found in Spencer et al. (2001), Chadwick et al. (2005, 2006), Chadwick (2006), Weeks and Chadwick (2011), McLain et al. (2014), Weeks et al. (2015), Woods et al. (2015), and Snyder et al. (2020). The project has a dedicated website: http://dinosaurproject.swau.edu A creationist interpretation of the Hell Creek Formation can be found in Clarey (2015b).
Marine reptile biomes (pages 40-41)
The marine reptile faunas of the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous appear to represent aquatic biomes closely associated with the respective dinosaur biomes. It is possible that these marine faunas were inhabitants of continent-bound “lakes” or “seas” adjacent to the dinosaur biomes, but more research is needed to establish this.
The Triassic diorama is based on data from Motani et al. (2008), Jiang et al. (2009), and Wu et al. (2015).
The Jurassic diorama is based on data from Wild (1990).
The Cretaceous diorama is based on data from Everhart (2005, 2006). The giant turtle Archelon occurs in the Pierre Shale that overlies the Niobrara Chalk (Carpenter 2003).
Eden and its surroundings (pages 42-43)
The absence of humans and most mammals, birds, and angiosperms from Flood-deposited rocks, and possible explanations for this absence, are discussed by Wood and Murray (2003, p.190). Dickens and Snelling (2015) have suggested that terrestrial vertebrate bones (and invertebrate shells) were dissolved under acidic conditions in the vicinity of the “fountains of the great deep”.
The diorama is based on data from Cope (1882), Simons (1967), Jaeger (1970), Gingerich (1976), Harrison and Walker (1979), Balouet (1981), Wang and Wang (1991), Wang (1994), Thewissen et al (2007), Ksepka and Clarke (2010), and Bochenski et al. (2013). Since we do not have fossils from this pre-Flood biome, we have reconstructed its inhabitants based on the earliest post-Flood representatives of some of the groups likely to have lived there.
3. THE OLD WORLD DESTROYED
The Flood anticipated (pages 46-48)
For the shape and dimensions of the ark see Lovett (2007) and Hodge (2007).
Hasel (1975, 1978), Davidson (1995), Whitcomb (2007), and Lloyd (2009) present a range of biblical evidence demonstrating that the Flood was global.
Estimates of the number of animals on the ark were made for the Ark Encounter in Kentucky
by Lightner et al. (2011), Lightner (2012, 2013), Hennigan (2013a, 2013b, 2014a, 2014b,
2015), and Ross (2013a, 2014a). An earlier estimate of the number of animals on the ark was by Jones (1973).
Woodmorappe (1996) has defended the reasonableness of the ark account, although for the purposes of his argument he presupposed a much larger number of ark animals than was likely the case.
The Flood begins (pages 49-50)
Fouts and Wise (1998) present biblical data suggesting that the “fountains of the great deep” were water sources distributed across the earth’s surface, both on the continents and in the oceans.
Geological evidence of megaquakes and the collapse of the continental margins at the start of the Flood is described by Austin and Wise (1994), Sigler and Wingerden (1998), and Wingerden (2003).
Peters and Gaines (2012) document the remarkable extent of the Great Unconformity. Dickens (2016) provides a creationist interpretation of the geochemical signatures associated with this boundary. Wise (2010a) describes the sudden appearance of the Cambrian animals, and its explanation in terms of early Flood burial.
The Flood unfolds (pages 50-54)
Snelling (2016) describes the evidence supporting plate tectonics.
The catastrophic plate tectonics model was introduced to creationism by Austin et al. (1994). Snelling (2007a) provides a layperson-friendly explanation of catastrophic plate tectonics. The model is defended against some criticisms in a paper by Clarey (2016).
The supersonic steam jets and sea level rise associated with catastrophic plate tectonics are described by Baumgardner (2002). Baumgardner (1986, 1990, 1994a, 1994b, 2003) describes the numerical modelling of the thermal runaway in the earth’s mantle that forms an important part of the catastrophic plate tectonics model.
Six geological evidences for the global Flood are summarised by Snelling (2007b, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c, 2008d, 2009a, 2009b).
Biomes are buried (pages 54-56)
Snelling (2010b) explains how the fossil order reflects the order in which creatures were sequentially buried during the Flood.
The ecological zonation theory was originally developed by Clark (1946, 1971, 1977). However, it has since been modified to propose biogeographic, rather than elevational, provinces in the pre-Flood world (e.g., Wood and Murray 2003, pp.188-191).
The preservation of the fossilized remains of Hylonomus and other vertebrates in tree stumps at Joggins, Nova Scotia, is documented in Lyell and Dawson (1853), Dawson (1862, 1863, 1870, 1876, 1882, 1891a, 1891b, 1892a, 1892b, 1894, 1895), Owen (1862), Steen (1933), Carroll (1964, 1966, 1967, 1970), and Holmes et al. (1998, 2010).
Snelling (2013) gives a creationist perspective on the origin of the Carboniferous coal layers, formed during the Flood from plant remains representing part of the pre-Flood floating forest.
Brand and Florence (1982) present data showing that trackways of reptiles and amphibians occur stratigraphically lower than the body fossils of the creatures that likely made them. Likewise, there is a worldwide pattern of trilobite tracks preceding the appearance of trilobite body fossils (Wise 2010b). These patterns are best explained by a global Flood model.
Evidence of rapid burial (pages 56-59)
The petrification of the Santana Formation fishes is described by Martill (1989). Wild (1990) describes the remarkable preservation of the vertebrates in the Jurassic sediments of Holzmaden.
Research on the “death pose” of fossil vertebrates is reported by Padian and Faux (2007) and Cutler et al. (2011). The enrolment of trilobites is discussed by Clarkson (1998, pp.365-366). Jellyfish fossils from Cambrian rocks in Wisconsin and Utah are described by Hagadorn et al. (2002) and Cartwright et al. (2007).
Whitmore (2007) makes the argument that the common preservation of fragile shells is evidence of rapid burial.
The upright fossil trees of Joggins, Nova Scotia, and Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, are described by Coffin et al. (2005, pp.212-249).
Wise (1991, 2010c) argues that the completeness of the fossil record is much closer to the expectations of young-age creationism than to those of conventional, long-age geology. The data on modern taxa with a fossil record are taken from Romer (1966, pp.347-396) and Valentine (1989).
The discovery of soft tissues, proteins, and perhaps even genetic material in dinosaur remains is documented by Schweitzer et al. (2005, 2007, 2009), Kaye et al. (2008), and Bailleul et al. (2020). Ross (2010) argues that the survival of soft tissues in dinosaur bones makes sense if the bones were buried only a few thousand years ago during Noah’s Flood. The Creation Research Society has sponsored the iDINO Project to study this issue from a creationist perspective (Anderson 2015a). See also Thomas (2013, 2015), Anderson (2015b), and DeMassa and Boudreaux (2015).
The Flood ends (pages 60-61)
Whitmore and Garner (2008) proposed that the pre-Flood, Flood and post-Flood boundaries can be identified by applying multiple criteria and by recognizing widespread patterns, independent of radiometric dates and zone fossils. Application of this method to the rock column in Wyoming led the authors to conclude that the Flood/post-Flood boundary coincided approximately with the end of the Mesozoic.
Chadwick (2000) describes his compilation of a global database of paleocurrent data, revealing that the Paleozoic and to a lesser extent the Mesozoic are dominated by large-scale directional trends, while the Cenozoic has much more scattered paleocurrent directions. This is consistent with a Flood/post-Flood boundary around the end of the Mesozoic. The paleocurrent database has been published by Brand et al. (2015).
Ross (2012, 2014b) argues that the highest significant biostratigraphic break, an expected feature of the Flood/post-Flood boundary, is associated with the end of the Mesozoic. Arment (2014, 2020a, 2020b) draws similar conclusions. Moreover, Wise (1989) argues that a Flood/post-Flood boundary around the end of the Mesozoic is consistent with the observation that exceptions to stasis and abrupt appearance seem to occur only in post-Mesozoic fossil species.
However, there is a great deal of ongoing debate about the location of the Flood/post-Flood boundary. For example, see Holt (1996) and Oard (2013).
Habermehl (2008) reviews the biblical clues to the ark landing place and examines several claimed ark locations.
4. A NEW WORLD EMERGES
An unfamiliar world (pages 64-66)
Our depictions of the animals leaving the ark are based on the earliest representatives of their respective kinds found in post-Flood rocks. Belknap and Chaffey (2016) consider some of the more exotic animals that were present on the ark, including representatives of now-extinct kinds and the unfamiliar ancestors of some modern animals.
The animals in the diorama are based on data from Cope (1872), Marsh (1891), Wortman (1898), Wetmore (1926), Matthew et al. (1929), Jepsen (1966), Martin and Black (1972), Hamilton (1978), Storch and Lister (1985), Houde and Haubold (1987), Thewissen (1990), MacFadden (1994), Kalb and Froehlich (1995), Solounias et al. (1995), Buffetaut (1997), Turner (1997), Croft et al. (2007), Franzen et al. (2009), De Pietri et al. (2011), and Missiaen et al. (2011).
Wise (2002, pp.220-223) discusses the destruction of biomes by the Flood, including the floating forest and the stromatolite reef. He also suggests that after the Flood the gymnosperms were crowded out by angiosperms, and that this in turn may have made post-Flood dinosaurs rare and prone to extinction.
Multiplying and filling the earth (pages 66-67)
Wise and Croxton (2003) propose that plants and animals rafted across oceans on and among masses of logs, plant debris, and vegetation mats in the immediate post-Flood world. This young-age creationist biogeographic model seems to explain not only the data accounted for by the best evolutionary models, but also the data that those evolutionary models fail to explain.
Wise (2002, p.223) suggests that marsupials might have ridden the plant rafts to island continents like Australia before slower-moving organisms. See also Wood and Murray (2003, pp.197-198). There is an interesting discussion of marsupial versus placental reproductive strategies in Hayssen et al. (1985).
The survival of marine and plant life outside the ark is discussed by Smith (1979), Darrall (1986), Cumming (1991), and Woodmorappe (1996, pp.139-162).
The ark kinds diversify (pages 68-71)
Evidence that all extant members of the cat family belong to a single created kind, and therefore must have arisen from an ancestral cat on the ark, is presented by Robinson and Cavanaugh (1998). Cavanaugh et al. (2003), and Wood (2008b) likewise argue that all horses, living and fossil, were descended from an ancestral ark horse. Similar conclusions concerning cats, horses, and brontotheres were reported by Thompson and Wood (2018).
Wood (2011a) surveyed three mammal classifications to identify the number of species or genera in a typical terrestrial mammal family, assuming that the rank of family approximates the created kind. The results indicate that most mammal families contain relatively few species, but a few families have many species. Creationist mechanisms of speciation must account for both trends: widespread lack of speciation but occasional extravagant speciation.
Wood (2003a) introduced the concept of mediated design, the idea that God created organisms with the ability to adapt to future change in specific, pre-designed ways. The idea is discussed further in Hennigan et al. (2009).
The transposition of genetic material in the form of Altruistic Genetic Elements (AGEs) was proposed by Wood (2002b) as a solution to the problem of rapid post-Flood diversification of baramins. A later paper by Wood (2003b) discussed new data, some of which supported the AGEing model and some of which called for revision of the model. Other possible mechanisms of rapid, post-Flood biological change, including accelerated mutation rates, are discussed in Wood (2013a, 2013c), with references to many other papers in the creationist literature.
Cooling and drying of the world (pages 72-73)
Isotope studies of foraminifera shells buried in seafloor sediments indicate that the oceans were once much warmer and have cooled down over time to the present average temperature (Vardiman 1996). Modelling by Vardiman (1994, 1998, 2003, 2008a, 2008b, 2010, 2011) and Vardiman and Brewer (2010a, 2010b, 2012a, 2012b) has shown that the continents would have been subjected to heavy and prolonged rain as the oceans cooled by evaporation.
Whitmore (2008, 2013) describes the catastrophic processes of erosion and sedimentation that would have been associated with the climatic and geological changes in the centuries after the Flood.
Over time the world cooled down and dried out, trends that are evident in the post-Flood fossil record. For example, the post-Flood fossil record evidences a transition from woodland to grassland communities with simultaneous changes across multiple groups of mammals reflecting a transition from browsing to grazing (e.g., increased hypsodonty) (Wise 1995, 2002, pp.218-220). Deserts also developed and expanded at this time (Wise 2002, pp.214-215).
The diorama is based on data from Grande (1984) and Gunnell (2001). Whitmore (2006a) and Whitmore and Wise (2008) present evidence that the Green River Formation was formed in an early post-Flood lake. The preservation of so many fish in the Green River Formation is evidence that sedimentation in the lake was rapid (Whitmore 2006b).
Humans spread across the earth (pages 74-77)
The diorama is based on data from Gabunia et al. (2000a), Gabunia et al. (2000b), Vekua et al. (2002), and Lordkipanidze et al. (2006, 2007, 2013).
Snelling and Matthews (2012) explain the human fossil record in the context of the dispersal from Babel. The fact that humans migrated across the world later than the animals explains the fact that apes (including extinct forms such as the australopithecines) appear earlier in the post-Flood fossil record than humans (Wise 1994, 2008a).
Data on the diversity of the various Homo species is taken from Leakey (1994), Stringer and Gamble (1994, pp.81-83), Brown et al. (2004), and Berger et al. (2015).
Baraminological studies indicate that all members of the genus Homo belong to the human created kind (Wise 2005; Wood 2010; Wood 2016a; O’Micks 2016a), although contention surrounds the placement of some Homo species. For example, see the exchanges between O’Micks (2016b, 2016c, 2017a, 2017b, 2017c), Wood (2016b, 2017), and McLain (2017a) concerning Homo naledi. Australopithecus sediba seems also to cluster with humans, supporting its inclusion in Homo (Wood 2010, 2016a), but see the dissenting opinions of Menton et al. (2010). See also Wood (2011b, 2013b, 2014, 2016c) and Wise (2016). Overall, these studies indicate the high diversity of humans as they spread from Babel.
The ice advance (pages 78-80)
The diorama is based on data from Kurtén (1976), Harrison (1987), Stringer (2006), Boismier et al. (2012), Montgomery et al. (2014), and Bestwick and Smith (2015).
Although the Bible does not refer explicitly to the ice age, it does give us information that can help us determine when the ice built up and melted away (Snelling and Matthews 2013). Wise (2002, p.216) has suggested that this episode is referred to as an “ice advance” rather than an “ice age”, since in the creation model there was only one, short-lived glaciation.
Oard (1990a, 1990b, 1990c, 2004) has proposed an ice age model that explains how the unique conditions of the post-Flood world led to a single, rapid ice age. Oard’s model has been supported by computer modeling efforts by creationists, including Vardiman (2001), Horstemeyer and Gullett (2003), Sherburn et al. (2008), and Gollmer (2013, 2018). See also Vardiman (2013).
During the glacial episode, a land bridge called Beringia connected Asia with North America (Elias et al. 1996) and a land bridge called Doggerland connected Britain to mainland Europe (Gaffney et al. 2009). The final flooding of Doggerland appears to have been associated with a catastrophic tsunami, generated by a submarine landslide off the coast of Norway (Weninger et al. 2008).
Ross (2013b) argues that the abundance of resources, the efficiency of size, and better heat retention help to explain the large sizes of many ice age mammals. Dwarf mammoths on Wrangel Island were first reported by Vartanyan et al. (1993).
The extinction of the ice age megafauna and its probable causes is discussed in Oard (1990, pp.124-133). See also Oard (2000, 2008).
The rise of civilizations (page 81)
The order in which the first civilizations arose is documented by Robinson (1995). Waring (2008) notes the rather sudden emergence of these civilizations and their technologies.
The details about the city-kingdom of Ur are from Douglas and Hillyer (1982, p.1231), Millard (1997, pp.50-53), and Livingston (2008).
5. FOSSILS AND THE FOSSIL RECORD
What are fossils? (pages 84-85)
Standard evolutionary texts on trace fossils include Bromley (1996) and Seilacher (2007). Cowart and Froede (1994) and Woodmorappe (2006) discuss trace fossils from a creationist
perspective.
Early concepts concerning fossils are discussed by Rudwick (1972) and Edwards (1976). John Woodward’s ideas about the formation of fossils during Noah’s Flood are laid out in his Essay toward a Natural History of the Earth (Woodward 1695).
What conditions are needed for fossils to form? (page 86)
Whitmore (2009b) outlines the importance of rapid burial and catastrophic processes for fossil preservation.
How are fossils preserved? (page 87)
Various modes of fossil preservation are explained by Nield and Tucker (1985, pp.1-4).
Monks (2009) provides a helpful guide to the standard toolkit used by field geologists and paleontologists.
What kinds of rocks contain fossils? (pages 88-89)
Snelling’s (2009c) two-volume book, Earth’s Catastrophic Past, provides an in-depth introduction to creationist geology. Other helpful books about creationist geology include Brand and Chadwick (2016), Ross et al. (2015), and Clarey (2020).
The global patterns that geologists discern in the rock record are documented, with examples, by Ager (1981, pp.1-14) and Morton (1984). Some interesting fossil patterns are described and discussed by Gibson (1996).
Ritland (1981, 1982) discusses the historical development of the geological column concept. Tyler and Coffin (2006) make the case for accepting the geological column but rejecting the long-age chronology usually attached to it. Likewise, Snelling (2015) argues that creationists can confidently use the geological column to understand the order in which the rock layers were formed. Snelling et al. (1996) is a statement by nine geologists and other specialists affirming the value of the geological column as a sound basis for research in creationist geology.
What does the fossil order mean? (pages 90-94)
One of the major arguments in favour of evolutionary theory concerns fossil organisms that are interpreted as evolutionary transitional forms. Wise (1995) provides an insightful evaluation of transitional forms from a creationist perspective. All examples of evolutionary links that have been claimed are, in fact, mosaics, not links (Wise 2008b). In other words, they exhibit unique combinations of traits (some of which are shared with other organisms) but the traits are fully developed, and not partially developed and intermediate as evolutionary theory would predict.
The illustration depicting two interpretations of the geological column was modified from Wise and Richardson (2004, p.132).
The life and work of creation biologist Frank Lewis Marsh is outlined in Wood and Murray (2003, pp.15-17). The term baramin was introduced in his Fundamental Biology (Marsh 1941, p.100).
Wise (1990) introduced the creationist orchard concept, in a paper that also launched the discipline of baraminology. Other recommended papers on baraminology include Wise (1992a), Frair (2000), Wood et al. (2003), Sanders and Wise (2003), and Wood (2005, 2006b, 2008a, 2013a).
Evidence for the status of the grass, woodpecker, and bear families as created kinds is presented by Wood (2002a), Hennigan (2010), Garner (2014), and Thompson and Wood (2018).
An unpublished study by Wise (n.d.) showed that there was a statistically significant agreement between the fossil order and the predicted evolutionary order in only five out of 144 test cases.
How are fossils classified? (pages 94-95)
According to “the biological species concept”, members of the same species are able to breed with one another but usually do not (or cannot) breed with members of other species. However, this definition cannot be applied to fossils or to asexual organisms, and in practice most species are defined using morphological criteria.
Wise (2014) has proposed a creationist alternative, which he calls “the revelatory species concept”. He says:
Romans 1:18-20 suggests that God created the universe with physical illustrations of His invisible attributes and God created humans with the ability to recognize those illustrations. As a distinctly creationist species concept, it is here proposed that species were created as basic characters or brushstrokes of many of these illustrations (here named the revelatory species concept). To properly recognize these illustrations, it is also here proposed that humans were created to recognize the species taxon by being endowed with the ability to characterize entities with the simplest possible approximations (what is here called the abstractification process). According to the revelatory species concept, organisms were created in taxa (recognizable groups of similar, stable morphologies distinct from all other taxa). The least inclusive taxa (the finest brushstrokes) are species. As a consequence of the abstractification process, humans not only innately recognize species, but also innately classify organisms into nested hierarchies that, in fact, reflect creation’s true hierarchal design.
The assignment of different names to separate parts of the tree known as Lepidodendron is noted by Milsom and Rigby (2009, p.103). The late evolutionary biologist, Stephen Jay Gould (1991, pp.194-206) gives a fascinating account of how Anomalocaris was reconstructed from component parts that had previously been assigned to other organisms.
6. MAJOR FOSSIL GROUPS
Microfossils (pages 98-99)
Standard evolutionary texts on microfossils include Brasier (1980) and Armstrong and Brasier (2005).
Purdom and Snelling (2013) argue that stromatolites, and even stromatolite reefs, of genuinely biological origin can be documented as far back in the rock record as the uppermost Archaean (around 3.5 billion years ago in conventional dating).
Tosk (1988) points out that the distribution of foraminifera in the fossil record seems to bear some resemblance to their ecological distribution in the oceans today, suggesting that this could be explained by a model in which foraminifera living in different parts of the pre-Flood ocean were sequentially buried during the global Flood.
Roth (1985) argues that the foraminifera-rich sediments on the present-day ocean floors could plausibly have accumulated in the time since the global Flood. Snelling (2009c, pp.925-930) provides a creationist perspective on the formation of coccolith-rich and diatom-rich sediments.
Some examples of giant-sized parafusulinids and nummulitids are described by Hamam (1975) and Pérez-Ramos and Nestell (2002).
The exquisite architecture of diatom shells is described by Armitage (1994, 2012) and Armitage and Lumsden (1995).
Plants (pages 100-102)
Standard evolutionary texts on fossil plants include Davis and Kenrick (2004), Taylor et al. (2009), Cleal (2013), Stinchcomb (2013), and Willis and McElwain (2013).
Sanders (2013) applied baraminological methods to the fossil record of angiosperms and estimated there are between 212 and 222 flowering plant kinds, mostly families and suborders but some orders.
Sponges, corals, and bryozoans (pages 103-104)
Clarkson’s textbook (1998) provides an evolutionary account of the fossil record of sponges (chapter 4), corals (chapter 5), and bryozoans (chapter 6). Botting (2014) discusses the fossil record of Paleozoic sponges and suggests that they are surprisingly abundant and diverse.
The formation of both modern and fossil reefs poses time challenges for young-age creationism. Whitmore (2009a) provides a constructive, though critical, review of earlier creationist work on modern and fossil reefs and makes suggestions for future research.
Brachiopods (pages 105-106)
A classic evolutionary work on living and fossil brachiopods is Rudwick (1970). Monks (2014) provides a popular overview of the productids, a group that includes giant forms like Gigantoproductus.
Mollusks I. Bivalves (pages 107-108)
Standard evolutionary accounts of fossil bivalves can be found in Clarkson (1998, pp.203-221) and Taylor and Lewis (2005, pp.65-75).
Mollusks II. Gastropods (page 109)
Standard evolutionary accounts of fossil gastropods can be found in Clarkson (1998, pp.222-229) and Taylor and Lewis (2005, pp.76-85).
Mollusks III. Cephalopods (pages 110-111)
Standard evolutionary accounts of fossil cephalopods can be found in Clarkson (1998, pp.229-255) and Taylor and Lewis (2005, pp.85-96, 113). Woodmorappe (1978) discussed the cephalopods from a creationist perspective.
Monks (2008b, 2010, 2013) provides popular-level overviews of belemnites, ammonites and Paleozoic nautiloids. Monks (2008a) and Grulke (2014) are useful sources on heteromorphic ammonites.
Arthropods I. Trilobites (pages 112-113)
Standard evolutionary texts on fossil trilobites include Levi-Setti (1995, 2014) and Lawrence and Stammers (2014). Fortey (2000) provides a lively, popular account.
Chadwick and DeHaan (2000) showcase the complexity of the trilobite as evidence favoring intelligent design over unguided evolution.
Torney (2015) describes the extraordinary optics of both holochroal and schizochroal eyes in trilobites. Wise (2012) argues that the schizochroal eye is a remarkable testimony to God’s design.
Arthropods II. Chelicerates, crustaceans, myriapods, and insects (pages 114-115)
Evolutionary accounts of fossil chelicerates, crustaceans, myriapods, and insects can be found in Clarkson (1998, pp.388-400) and Taylor and Lewis (2005, pp.148-161). Popular overviews of fossil insects and crustaceans are provided by Penney (2015) and Monks (2015).
The Arthropleura trackways at Crail are described by Shimmin and Day (2008). Meyer (2003) documents the remarkably preserved fossils of Florissant National Monument, including the insects.
Echinoderms (pages 116-117)
Standard evolutionary texts on fossil echinoderms include Smith (1984) and Ausich and Webster (2008). The extraordinary water vascular system of echinoderms is described by Buchsbaum et al. (1987, pp.467-471).
Graptolites (page 118)
A standard evolutionary text on graptolites is Palmer and Rickards (2001).
Vertebrates I. Fishes (pages 119-121)
Standard evolutionary texts on fossil fishes include Moy-Thomas and Miles (1971), Maisey (1996), and Long (2010). Myllokunmingia and Haikouichthys were first described by Shu et al. (1999). Descriptions of the probable life habits of the fishes depicted in this chapter can be found in Norman (1994, pp.69-83).
The first description of the conodont animal was by Briggs et al. (1983).
Vertebrates II. Amphibians and reptiles (pages 121-124)
Standard evolutionary texts on fossil amphibians and reptiles include Benton (1990), Fastovsky and Weishampel (2005), Carroll (2009), Dixon (2010), Chinsamy-Turan (2011), Brusatte (2012), Clack (2012), Witton (2013), and Schoch (2014).
Garner (2003) reviewed the fossil record of the semi-aquatic Upper Devonian tetrapods from a creationist perspective. Some initial baraminology work on these fossil tetrapods has been done by Garner and Asher (2018).
Recent creationist books on dinosaurs include Kennedy (2006) and Clarey (2015a).
The extinct pelycosaur family, Caseidae, was identified as a created kind by Aaron (2014a). Some work has also been done to identify created kinds among the therapsids and associated forms (McLain 2017b, 2017c; Talavera and McLain 2017, 2018; Lay and McLain 2019). Likewise, Wood et al. (2011), Aaron (2014b), and Doran et al. (2018) have begun the task of identifying the dinosaur kinds.
Vertebrates III. Birds and mammals (pages 125-127)
Standard evolutionary texts on fossil birds include Feduccia (1996), Chiappe and Witmer (2002), Chiappe (2007), and Dyke and Kaiser (2011). Mesozoic mammals are discussed by Lillegraven et al. (1979), Kielan-Jaworowska et al. (2004), Kemp (2005), and Kielan-Jaworowska (2013). An evolutionary account of Cenozoic mammals is provided by Prothero (2006).
Creationists have published many baraminology studies aimed at identifying the created kinds of birds and mammals. See, for example, Wood (2016e) and Thompson and Wood (2018).
A PERSONAL REFLECTION: GLORIFYING GOD THROUGH SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY
An excellent resource for creationist students thinking about a career in science is Wood’s (2018) book, The Quest: Exploring Creation’s Hardest Problems. Thought-provoking and uncompromising, The Quest invites the reader to view the hard scientific questions as an invitation to a lifetime of discipleship seeking God.
REFERENCES
Key
BCS = Biblical Creation Society
BSG = Biology Study Group
GRI = Geoscience Research Institute
ICR = Institute for Creation Research
TJ = Technical Journal
Notes
Answers can be accessed at https://answersingenesis.org/answers/magazine/
Answers Research Journal can be accessed at https://answersresearchjournal.org/
Creation can be accessed at https://creation.com/creation-magazine-articles
Creation Research Society Quarterly can be accessed at
https://www.creationresearch.org/crsq-journal
e-Origins can be accessed at https://biblicalcreationtrust.org/resources-e-origins.html
Journal of Creation (formerly Creation Ex Nihilo Technical Journal and TJ) can be accessed at
https://creation.com/journal-of-creation-articles
Journal of Creation Theology and Science Series B: Life Sciences can be accessed at
https://coresci.org/jcts/index.php/jctsb
Journal of Creation Theology and Science Series C: Earth Sciences can be accessed at
https://coresci.org/jcts/index.php/jctsc
Occasional Papers of the BSG can be accessed at https://tinyurl.com/b2h929
Origins [GRI] can be accessed at https://grisda.org/origins-1
Proceedings of the International Conference on Creationism can be accessed at
https://www.internationalconferenceoncreationism.com/proceedings/
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